HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS TOPICAL GROUP REPORT FOR 2007
 
 

JANUARY 2007 MEETING

  Prof. Keith Sheppard, Teachers College, Columbia U, <sheppard@tc.columbia.edu>,

"History of High School Laboratory Work in Chemistry and Physics."

In 1860 there was no individual laboratory work in American high school science education; by 1900 it was everywhere. How this came to be was the subject of a presentation, "A History of High School Laboratory Work in Chemistry and Physics," by Keith Sheppard, of Stony Brook University, and Gail Horowitz, of Yeshiva University.
 

Sheppard traced the role of laboratory work in science education to Justus von Liebig, who, Horowitz pointed out, was Professor of Chemistry at Giessen, now in Germany, from 1824 until 1852. He thus became the "father of laboratory work in science education" as well as the "father of organic chemistry," although it was the latter title, because of Liebig's fame in chemical research, which enabled him to influence science education and thus acquire the former title.

Horowitz explained that Liebig trained businessmen as well as academics, from the U.S. as well as from Europe. His three-step training method consisted of: (1) fundamental laboratory techniques, (2) chemical analyses (of what eventually became the contents of 100 bottles), and (eventually) (3) chemical research. In turn, Liebig's students imported his methods into their own institutions. Several notable Americans in this category were Eben Horsford, Oliver Wolcott Gibbs, Frederic Genth and Jonathan Porter.

Horsford was most influential in transplanting Liebig's methodology to the United States. He had returned to accept a Professorship at Harvard and quickly persuaded a local manufacturer, to donate money to establish a scientific school. In 1847, the Lawrence Scientific School opened and Horsford modeled the school along Liebig's lines and initiated the first laboratory course in chemistry. Two years later, Eliot began his studies at Harvard, just as Josiah P. Cooke was hired as Instructor of Chemistry. Cooke set up a private laboratory at Harvard College emulating HorsfordÕs laboratory at the Lawrence School and Eliot began volunteering in Cooke's laboratory and witnessed first hand the use of the laboratory method. After graduating, Eliot remained at Harvard and began to co-teach a chemistry class with Cooke, in which he oversaw the laboratory work. Shortly afterwards, EliotÕs appointment ended and despite Horsford having just vacated his Professorship, Eliot was not offered the position. Eliot disappointed, went to study in Europe.

After two years studying the organization and methods of instruction of universities in France, Germany and Italy, Eliot was enticed to accept a position at the newly founded Massachusetts Institute of Technology. At MIT, Eliot began teaching chemistry students using the laboratory method. Realizing that no adequate textbooks existed, he co-authored the first English language chemistry laboratory manual. Its objective was, to facilitate the teaching of chemistry by the experimental and inductive method. The text revolutionized chemistry teaching in the United States, by promoting laboratory-based instruction. Eliot worked at MIT for just two years because in 1869 he was elected president of Harvard University. In selecting Eliot, Harvard made a significant break from tradition. Eliot would serve as Harvard's president for forty years. The directions that Eliot took and the changes that he implemented while serving as HarvardÕs president revolutionized the teaching of science in the United States.

Almost immediately, Eliot broadened HarvardÕs admissions policy. First, physics was added as an admissions option; then a mandatory science entrance requirement was implemented. In 1886, a new policy regarding laboratory work was initiated. Completion of specific high school science experiments would entitle entering students to receive admission credit. Eliot had Cooke prepare a list of approved chemistry experiments and Edwin Hall (best known for his discovery of the Hall Effect, an electric potential difference set up across a wire by an electric current passing through it when a perpendicular magnetic field is present) prepare a comparable list of physics experiments. Given HarvardÕs influence, high schools created new laboratory courses to feature individual laboratory work.

Eliot's impact on high school science was not limited to HarvardÕs sphere of influence, but extended to the national level. There was widespread dissatisfaction with the high school - college interface, which led in 1892 to the formation of the first national education committee, the Committee of Ten (CoT), which was chaired by Eliot, and was charged with restructuring high school study. In the late nineteenth century, mental discipline and training were seen as the purpose of education. Certain subjects, notably Latin, Greek and Mathematics, were believed to strengthen the faculties of memory, reasoning and imagination. Eliot argued for the place of science in the curriculum because in the science laboratory student Òexercises his powers of observation and judgment [and] acquires the precious habit of observing appearances, transformations and the processes of nature.Ó A major reason why the sciences were able to break into the then classics dominated curriculum was because of the Physical Science sub-committeeÕs and EliotÕs advocacy of the laboratory method.

In 1895, the Committee on College Entrance Requirements (CCER) was established to implement the CoT recommendations. The science sections of the CCER reiterated the importance of laboratory work and specified that laboratory work should be performed individually in well-equipped laboratories, with each student having his/her own set of apparatus. If these conditions were met, then Òall colleges must give admission credit for the subject.Ó Having been instrumental in ensuring that the sciences and science laboratories were incorporated into high schools and colleges, Eliot also contributed significantly towards raising the status of science, further ensuring its prevalence and prominence in educational institutions. Eliot launched a movement to standardize the college entrance examinations, which further consolidated the role of laboratory work.

At the time, the status of a subject in high school was directly correlated to its degree of acceptance by colleges. A movement to standardize the examinations of the colleges had been launched by Eliot in 1877. In 1900, Nicholas Butler of Columbia University, established the College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) - "Eliot's idea and Butler's triumph." The first examinations (now known as achievement tests or SAT II tests) were given in 1901. The subjects tested were those defined by the CCER. In science, initially, there were physics and chemistry examinations. Subjects that were tested became acknowledged as college entrance subjects.

The CEEB published syllabi for the courses it tested, outlining what curricula high schools should follow to prepare students for the CEEB examinations. The first CEEB syllabi in Physics and Chemistry exhibit the importance that the CEEB gave to individual laboratory work. The initial CEEB science exams required a laboratory component to be performed in the schools. Students had to send in their completed laboratory work to be graded by an examiner. The practice of requiring laboratory books to be assessed continued until 1909, when it was replaced with certification by science teachers. To this day, New York State continues to require teacher certification of student laboratory work. The current New York State Regents requirement in chemistry is that high school students complete at least 1200 minutes of laboratory work.

In 1905 Andrew Carnegie established a ten million dollar pension fund for college professors. Named for Carnegie was the "Carnegie unit," which defined a high school course as 120 60-minute hours spent in class. The unit was universally adopted, and Sheppard noted that to fit into the new unit double periods for labs were counted as a single periods. This two-tier system, better known for assigning credit in college courses, has continued to this day, and Sheppard observed that NSTA's 15th December 2006 draft position paper on the role of laboratories in science education did nothing to challenge this. Sheppard himself felt that the additional time spent on laboratory work in science courses merits additional credit for them.

There followed an interesting discussion form the members on the value of lab work, and the policies of giving regents lab exams. Eric Megli commented that, the psycometricians would never be able to standardize the lab exam component of statewide exams. Hence the lab part is no longer on the table for discussion or implementation.

Keith noted that we are trying to teach too much material in too short a time. The science content has increased enormously in the past century, yet the time devoted to it remains the same. Physics gets less credit per time spent on it than any other subject. Only 45% of NYC High Schools teach Physics. Only 2 schools in the Bronx offer AP Physics. Biology-Chemistry-Physics-AP Biology is now the most common science sequence.
Keith attended school in the UK, where science is taught in a spiraling method. Science is taken each year, and the topics spiraled for depth. He likened teaching science in the NY sequence as if we were to teach a new language each year instead of continuing with the same language the following school year.
 
 

FEBRUARY 2007 MEETING

  Dr. Monica Plisch, Senior Research Associate, Center for Nanoscale Systems, 632 Clark Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
< mjp11@cornell.edu

"The Phantastic Photon, a hands-on presentation."

Hands-on workshops are a very serious business to Dr. Monica Plisch, Senior Research Associate, Center for Nanoscale Systems, 632 Clark Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, < mjp11@cornell.edu >. They are both educational and fun, allowing students to tinker while they learn. Dr. Plisch has gathered a group of Cornell scientists and teachers to create new activities and perfect old ones, producing several kits over the years. One of these is the "Phantastic Photon," written up by Jim Overheiser, Gil Toombes, and Martin Alderman. This hands-on lab is designed to teach students about the particle characteristics of light and the properties of differing wavelengths of light.

The setup is rather simple. The kit contains a diffraction grating slide; a small printed circuit card complete with batteries, a constant current power supply and LEDs ranging from ultraviolet to infrared with violet, blue, green, yellow, orange and red in between; glow-in-dark tape; a sheet of paper with various photosensitive paints on it; and a molded plastic holder with a hand grip and slots for the card and slide.  The holder becomes a spectroscope complete with nanometer wave length markings. The LEDs are bright enough so that the room did not have to be darkened.

The audience grouped into teams of three or four, collected the kits and quickly assembled the spectroscopes. The light from each LED was one color but not one wavelength. It was easy to estimate the center of the smear.  The abstract of the paper Dr. Plisch distributed (a teacher and a student version) described the purpose of the lab:

According to Einstein's theory, light is composed of particles called photons. The color of light determines the wavelength and energy of the photons. Students investigate these relationships by shining colored light from super-bright LEDs onto phosphorescent and fluorescent materials. They determine which LEDs activate glow-in-the-dark tape, measure their wavelengths and calculate the photon energies. Students are then asked to apply their knowledge of photons to explain the behavior of fluorescent paints. There was time to do all the experiments described.

Cornell has set up a free lending service for all the kits that have been developed. Check <www.cns.cornell.edu/cipt> to borrow a class set of any kit. The kits are also available commercially from West Hill Biological Resources.
 
 

MARCH 2007 MEETING

  Dr. Paul Stonehart, Stonehart Associates Inc., <pablo122056@sbcglobal.net>

"Fuel Cells - Science, Technology, and Economics for Ultra Clean Power Production."

The underground public transportation system (NYC subways, PATH system) in the Metro area enabled us to hold the meeting. Despite the five inch accumulation of snow, slush, ice and freezing rain, eight showed up for dinner and more than 30 for the meeting; many from New Jersey.

The biggest difficulty of weaning us from our present heavy dependence on fossil fuels has been finding a replacement for gasoline as a transportation fuel. One such touted replacement has been the fuel cell.
Paul Stonehart has been working on fuel cells for a long time - since 1959. in fact, the year he entered graduate school at King's College, Cambridge, where his 1962 doctoral dissertation was titled"Electrode Reactions of Oxygen and Hydrogen Peroxide."  In the early years of his career he was involved with fuel cell development for key phases of our human space flight programs - projects Gemini and Apollo and later the Space Shuttle. In the years since he has obtained patents for many technological improvements; he has contributed to phosphoric acid and polymer membrane fuel cells. Indeed, the story of these developments has been in the patent literature as well as in the scientific literature, where Stonehart has written about 200 papers on fuel cell science and technology.

As Stonehart recounted in his talk on ÒFuel Cells Ñ Science, Technology, and Economics for Ultra Clean Electric Power ProductionÓ to the Physics and Chemistry Teachers Clubs of New York at New York University on 16 March 2007, a fuel cell is basically a long life gas battery that uses only oxygen and hydrogen as reactants to make water.

Early fuel cells, such as those for Gemini and Apollo, used hydrogen and oxygen carried aboard and were based on largely empirical understandings, Stonehart said. It was the need to develop a fuel cell capable of using hydrocarbon fuels (as a source for the hydrogen fuel) that led to the phosphoric acid fuel cell. This required a deep scientific basis for the successful production of this fuel cell operating on natural gas. One key to dealing with this has been nanochemistry, developing catalyst particles with no diameter larger than 10 nm.

Fuel cells have to be tailored to their uses, Stonehart said, and there have been many of them. He cited 200 kW phosphoric acid fuel cell units which fit on the back of flatbed trucks. When connected to a natural gas source, they run 40,000 hours without maintenance. A cluster of five of them have been set up to generate a megawatt of power electric power for the Post Office in Alaska.

Just as NASA found promise in fuel cells for its human space flight programs, so also has Germany seen a future for them in submarines. Stonehart fells that there are many other attractive uses for fuel cells, but he adds that they are not easily a solution for transportation. For one reason, air pollutants (particularly sulfur) affect fuel cell catalysts Ñ this is not a problem in fuel cells operating at high temperatures but becomes serious in fuel cells operating at lower temperatures like 100oC. Another problem is that of freezing temperatures on the water by-product of fuel cells. Moreover, Stonehart pointed out, fuel cells that run on natural gas are not an answer to our current dependence on fossil fuels.

In the discussions at dinner and after the talk it was pointed out that fuel cells that depend on fossil fuels or prime movers that depend on biomass energy (ethanol, biodiesel) do not eliminate our carbon dependence which many believe greatly contributes to global warming. So far, sequestering CO2 has not been a winner. Switching to hydrogen generated by electrolyzing water with nuclear or photovoltaic generated electricity would alleviate the carbon problem but both these solutions present their own problems.

Hydrogen explosions are not one of them. In 1938 the Hindenburg did not explode, it burned. It has been pointed out that when a gasoline fuel tank ruptures the fuel spreads on the surface and burns everything it contacts. On the other hand, when hydrogen tanks rupture, the gas rises and burns. Chemistry teachers used to demonstrate the difference between burning and exploding. They filled one balloon with pure H2 and another smaller balloon with two parts H2 and five parts air. When ignited, the pure H2 balloon floated up and burned while the H2-air mixture exploded with a bang that made the windows rattle. THIS DEMONSTRATION IS NOT ALLOWED ANYMORE. DO NOT TRY IT.

For definitive test results on hydrogen balloon explosions, see Battino, R.; Battino, B.S.; Scharlin, P. Hydrogen Balloon Explosions, J. Chem. Educ., 69, 921-3(1992). In an e-mail discussion with Ruben Battino, he wrote that Òthe hydrogen on the Hindenburg burned rather than exploded. The controlling factor for an explosion is how fast the fuel and oxygen meet. With a mass of hydrogen in the balloon the hydrogen effectively burned only at the surface contact with the oxygen in the air. We did a test by exploding different sized hydrogen filled balloons and measuring the sound levels. Up to a certain size the sound level gets louder, but when you make the balloons bigger the combustion is diffusion controlled, i.e., it takes time for the oxygen in the air to mix with the hydrogen in the balloon. Up to that maximum size you can say that the hydrogen filled balloons explode - they do NOT burn. A large part of the explosive character has to do with the gas being inside the balloon under the tension of the rubber of the balloon, i.e., the gas is under pressure so it moves out rapidly to meet the oxygen in the air. In the Hindenburg, for example, the hydrogen was not under any significant pressure. This can be tested by igniting soap bubbles filled with hydrogen - they do not explode. I regularly ignite soap bubbles filled with propane and they go up in a big sheet of flame, but with no noise. We also tested air/hydrogen mixtures which are a bit less dangerous than oxygen/hydrogen mixtures. Small size air/hydrogen balloons are very loud, and it is correct to ban them for demonstrations.

By changing the carburetion, it is possible to run conventional gasoline engines on propane, natural gas or hydrogen. Automobiles can run without fuel cells or burning carbon.
The energy balance for ethanol from Brazilian sugarcane is 10.2 units of renewable energy output for every unit of energy input (10.2:1). Ethanol from European sugar beet (2.1:1) and American corn (1.4:1) is not as efficient. There might be a future for US cellulose ethanol (10:1) but there is no production so far. These statistics come from Science Vol. 315 9 February 2007 page 809.

Storing ethanol also presents a problem. Because underground metal gasoline storage tanks were corroding and leaking, in the US they have been replaced with plastic tanks. Ethanol and plastic are not compatible.
Dr. Stonehart believes replacing fossil fuel dependence presents many opportunities for those who study physics, chemistry, chemical engineering and material science.
 
 

APRIL 2007 MEETING

  "Demo Derby" - an evening of non-stop demonstrations (5-8 minutes max.) If you want to participate, just bring your demo, clean-up equipment and safety apparel. Write your name on the board. Remember, its quick, quick, quick. YouÕre not teaching, just showing what can be demonstrated in the classroom.

As it usually is, despite the heavy rains and highway flooding earlier in the day, the Demo Derby was one of the best attended meetings of the year.

Organized as an ACS program, NY Section Chair Joan Laredo Liddell announced that the play, Phallacy, by renowned chemist Carl Djorassi will have a special performance at the Cherry Lane Theater 30 Commerce Street NY, Sunday, May 20, at 3 PM. Watch as a top art historian and chemistry professor debate to prove their theories about the authenticity of a revered Roman statue and what turns their rivalry takes. There will be a Q&A session with the author after the performance. For discount tickets ($28) availability, contact Joan at <JLaredoLiddell@aol.com>.

UFT Science Comm. Chair Jean Delfiner has organized an exhibition table with take-home demos, ACS literature and other materials at the UFT Education Conference at the NY Hilton on May 5.
Listed in order of presentation, the demonstrators were: Herb Gottlieb, Jay Rogoff, Godwyn Morris and her son Russell, Steve Zellman, Myra Hauben, Steve Gould, Rudy Jones, Jack Depalma, Joe Sencen, Joan Laredo Liddell, Mike Spalding, Fred Neuman, Chris Williams and Jean Delfiner. Many have participated before and there were quite a few first timers.

All the demos were visually interesting and good lead-ins to the topics you want to teach. Only two required water. Most were light and easy to transport. Herb Gottlieb and Jack DePalma were real heroes. Their equipment must have weighed more than 50 lbs each. That's a lot to carry on the subway.

Company catalogs are an excellent resource for ideas and equipment for demos and hands-on activities for K-12 teachers. Teachersource.com, Flinnsci.com, Orientaltrading.com and Allelectronics.com were mentioned as being particularly teacher friendly. Search "Science toys," Science equipment,etc. on the Internet for thousands more leads.

Long after the demos were over, there were still people standing around and socializing.
 
 

SEPTEMBER 2007 MEETING

  Victor D. Chase, science writer, <vdc1@optonline.net>
"Neural Prostheses."

 During some 30 years in the field Victor Chase has garnered newspaper, wire service, and magazine experience. His latest book, ÒShattered Nerves: How Science Is Solving Modern MedicineÕs Most Perplexing Problem, 2006,Ó Johns Hopkins University Press, is about an exciting new area of medical implant technology created to return sight to the blind, movement to the paralyzed, and hearing to the deaf. It was cited by the Library Journal as one of the best science books of 2006.

Science writer Victor D. Chase spoke about neural prosthetics. He has written a trade book on the subject, Shattered Nerves: How Science is Solving Modern MedicineÕs Most Perplexing Problem (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), which he intends for anyone interested in science.  Chase provided a thorough, accessible overview of recent research in the field of experimental devices.

Neural prosthetics perform one of two functions: they inject electricity into the body to stimulate cells, or they use electricity from the body to operate robotic arms and similar aids. Chase interviewed 60 researchers and patients to understand the process of pioneering new devices including cochlear implants, auditory brainstem implants, upper extremity systems, standing and walking systems, bowel and bladder implants, and vision implants. He stressed that although many of these implants are not yet well-enough developed to completely restore functions like vision, the psychological benefits to the patient of experiences like seeing a few spots of light makes them worth their risks.

Research in the field gained momentum around 1967, when British physician Giles Brindley invented the visual cortex implant, an electrical stimulating device. (Brindley is also known for creating a computerized bassoon and a treatment for erectile dysfunction, which he demonstrated on himself at a convention of urologists.) MIT graduate Terry Hambrecht, motivated by the paralysis of his best friend, built on this foundation by inventing a device which, when touched to the skin of a paralyzed person, induced uncontrolled movement. This was similar to an attempt made by Benjamin Franklin a century earlier but proved far more successful because of a constant electricity supply.

The first FDA-approved implants were cochlear implants, and it was Don Eddington at the Cambridge Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary who developed a multi-channel implant. Cochlear implants replace the thousands of dead hair cells that release neurotransmitters to the auditory nerve; the success of the implant is due to the brain's ability to adapt and extrapolate from the information the electrodes provide, discerning words and sounds. Initially, a cochlear implant took the form of six platinum electrodes and a pedestal that protruded through the patientÕs head, but currently, radio frequencies and wires are used to transmit recorded sound into the body. For patients who are not helped by the cochlear implant because the auditory nerve itself is damaged, auditory and penetrating brainstem implants transmit signals directly to the brainstemÑbut implantation requires more-invasive surgery.

Chase also discussed three types of functional electrical stimulation (FES) implants. Upper extremity systems are no longer widely manufactured because they were not a commercial success, but they return movement to parapelegics. One mechanism for this is the joint-angle sensor, an implant magnet in an area the patient can move, like the wrist or neck. The patient then moves that muscle to communicate a desired action to a computer. The second type, standing and walking systems, have greatly changed the lives of patients like Jennifer Franch, who walked down the aisle at her wedding and remarked, "there is nothing better than looking back at an empty wheelchair." Thirdly, bowel and bladder implants are electrodes implanted in the abdomen that give the patient control of sphincter muscle stimulation.

Ameliorating vision loss associated with macular degeneration and retinose pigmentosa is a primary goal of vision implant research, and epiretinal implants can be placed on the front of the retina to convert light to digital information and transmit this to the brain. Subretinal implants are more controversial because their long-term efficacy is not yet clear, but they have revolutionary therapeutic results. When rods and cones malfunction, they no longer give off neurotropic factors, so surrounding cells also become inactive; however, subretinal stimulation causes these cells to Òwake,Ó which could prove an essential step in restoring vision to the blind.

The final system Chase presented was the brain-computer interface, which uses signals from 100 electrodes implanted in the motor cortex to move a computer cursor, operate email, and even play a game of Pong. A Hypothetical Implanted Cortical Controlled FES Hand Grasp System is currently being researched in the hope that it would allow patients to operate limbs and devices via thought processes instead of needing to use joint-angle sensors. A noninvasive system is also being studied, but eliminating extraneous noise is a challenge.

Other applications of research in the field include expanding the hearing and visual range beyond normal wavelengths and expanding memory and learning. However, Chase stressed the importance of building devices that are fail-safe in order to minimize the number of operations patients will undergo as neural prosthetics are used more frequently. One obstacle is corrosion caused by electron interaction with electrolytes in the body, but testing and synthesizing new materials may remedy this type of complication.
 
 

OCTOBER 2007 MEETING

  Bernard J. Bulkin, <bernie.bulkin@btinternet.com>
"Can Technology Save the Planet?"

 There is clear scientific evidence that climate change is happening, and that it is caused by human activity. Stopping this is the most difficult problems that people have ever had to face - first because it involves action by all of us, everywhere, and second because there is no one thing we can do that will solve the problem. Fortunately, there are many things, and we just need to choose some and do them. Of course some require behavioral change, but there is also a big role for science to play, and for the practical outcomes of science, technology. In this talk I am going to speak specifically about chemistry and physics, including some apparently simple developments that could make a big difference to our life on Earth. Could nuclear power be used to split water to make hydrogen? How might we double the efficiency of solar panels while reducing the cost by a factor of 2? How much of our gasoline and diesel fuel could be made from waste products? And are there any new batteries waiting to be discovered?
 
 

NOVEMBER 2007 MEETING

Helen Creedon-O'Hurley,  Hunter College H.S.
and Chemistry Teachers'Club of NY President, <helen@creedonohurley.ie>

"Smart Science: Using the Interactive Whiteboard in the Science Classroom."

 This is the topic for her sabbatical book, and she would appreciate the feedback of in-service teachers who are using or might be using the equipment in their classroom.

At the November 16th meeting, held at SMART Technologies Corporation's showroom (200 Lexington Avenue), Chemistry Club President Helen Creedon-O'Hurley led participants in discussing and experimenting with the revolutionary SMART Board's  interactive whiteboard. The meeting was designed to incorporate both structured and hands-on informal discussion, serving as a valuable opportunity for teachers to share creative uses of the technology and to explore its promising potential as a teaching tool.

Ms. Creedon-OÕHurley began by giving an overview of the whiteboard system, which consists of three primary parts: the SMART Board itself (ranging from about six to eight feet in diagonal), an overhead or wall-mounted projector, and a connected computer. Anything that can be done on a computer can be displayed on the SMART Board, from navigating the World Wide Web to running a PowerPoint presentation to playing a DVD.

In addition, Notebook Interactive Viewer software can be downloaded at no charge from the SMART Technologies website (http://smarttech.com) and provides word-processing and multimedia features as well as the ability to save and electronically share anything written on the board during class using digital ink(teachers remove one of the four colored pen tools from a Pen Tray, and the SMART Board's Digital Vision Touch technology interprets contact with the board). By attaching an external device like a camera or microscope, teachers can also use the SMART Board to project a demonstration on the board and label the screen using digital ink.

After the system was introduced, participants broke into small groups to familiarize themselves with use of the SMART Board and to explore many of these capabilities. One suggestion that arose was to use the line-drawing tool in Notebook to construct tables to organize data collected in the laboratory and email class results to students. In fact, any table-like template can be saved and added to the Gallery (a feature of Notebook that contains images, animations, and other saved media), enabling teachers to easily re-use a template like a two-column slide ÐBettyann Howson said that this enabled her to show her students the benefits of the Cornell System, a two-column method of note-taking that places key words on the left and explanations on the right. Another teacher suggested using a scanner to upload a page of a textbook and teach content as well as note-taking skills by marking up the image on the SMART Board.

A Virtual Frog Dissection in the Notebook Gallery was also discovered, and numerous other interactive dissections were found online via Google Search and displayed on the board; this exemplified the SMART BoardÕs profound capacity to bring the resources available online into the classroom to invigorate any lesson. When the group reconvened to discuss some favorite features of the SMART Board, the ease of pulling pictures, animations, and diagrams off the Internet was applauded. Mark Hesse showed how a diagram that would take five minutes of class time to draw could be easily and flawlessly pre-prepared using Notebook; he presented an animated circuit containing multiple loads (found in the Notebook Gallery) that could be shifted with the touch of a finger, and current and voltage for each new circuit were automatically recalculated.

Bettyann Howson pointed to the sense of organization that Notebook provides as yet another benefit to mastering use of the SMART Board, showing how it enabled her to display, on a succession of slides, all the information she wanted parents to get from an Open School Night. Christine Abdou showed how the SMART Board can be used to make teaching fundamental skills to younger students more colorful and intriguing than they otherwise might be Ð she presented a Jeopardy game she had created using Powerpoint to review concepts like choosing appropriate measurement tools for particular task.

Teachers expressed the need for more technical support in using this new technology. Excellent networking and teacher support was enacted as groups gathered at the seven different systems in the show room. Many trouble-shooting issues were addressed, such as how to orient the board when one touches and the cursor appears in a different place, how to connect the cords, the different pen styles, and uses of the notebook software.
The systems range from a board alone at roughly a thousand dollars, to the integrated SMART Board and projector system as much $5,600, to portable units on wheels, and the built-in option where a room is built around the projectors which become part of the wall. The importance of training teachers in its use so that they do not feel overwhelmed by the new technology was clear. The ideas exchanged during this meeting showed that the SMART Board is a valuable addition to the classroom, but that in order to develop creative lessons, teachers must not rely solely on technology; they must be willing to innovate and explore the technology.

Thanks to Jodi Rosen for hosting the meeting at SMART Technologies Corporation showroom. She lengthened her work-week to give the club members an opportunity to have a meeting where all the participants had access to the boards.
 


DECEMBER 2007 MEETING

  Prof. Mary Virginia Orna, College of New Rochelle, NY, <mvorna@cnr.edu>

"The Chemist as Detective in Examining Art and Artifacts."

 Dr. Orna is internationally known for her work in chemical education - principle investigator for Chem Source; organizer of a BCCE and many summer outreach workshops for HS teachers. In addition, she is very active in the ACS and is a recognized expert in art conservation and authentification  the Shroud of Turin.

The December 14th meeting featured College of New Rochelle Professor Mary Virginia Orna, <mvorna@cnr.edu>, who described how experts can learn about an objectÕs's history and origin by analyzing elements present in it. Professor Orna's presentation was entitled "The Chemist as Detective in Examining Art and Artifacts", and it implied that all branches of science have growing potential to revolutionize the way we interpret artifacts.
The first method of analysis Professor Orna discussed was atomic absorption analysis, a procedure that involves using a specialized spectrophotometer to measure the absorption of light by vaporized ground state atoms and to determine the elements present in a sample. The process is complex, requiring a burner, separate lamps to test for various elements (the most common being Al, Ca, Co, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mg, Mn, Ni, K, Na, and Zn), and a calibration curve; but the result is a clear trace element profile with ÒpeaksÓ indicating the presence of particular elements.

The talented expert Peter Gibson could tell from what century and location a shard of glass originated simply by looking at it, but scientists without that gift can compare trace element profiles of glass fragments to see if they came from the same stained glass window or workshop - if a sample's potassium/sodium ratio is greater than one, for instance, it was probably made near an ocean. Trace element profiles can also be analyzed to determine raw materials were used, glass-making conditions, and likely sources of the plant ash flux; to attribute glass fragments to the same geographical area; and to discern reasons for glass color, which is influenced by transition elements present in the sample.

Professor Orna also shared her experience at the University of Tel Aviv to exemplify the usefulness of atomic absorption analysis. She was commissioned to piece together pottery shards from two different works, but thousands of fragments from both artifacts were mixed together, creating a seemingly overwhelming scenario. However, by sampling and analyzing a few milligrams from the exposed interior edge of each piece, the fragments were successfully sorted into two groups and pieced together to form museum-quality artifacts.

When the required instruments are available, neutron activation analysis is an easier method of obtaining a trace element profile. A sample is placed in a nuclear reactor and irradiated with neutrons. When atoms in the sample acquire neutrons, they become radioactive isotopes and emit gamma radiation that has energy characteristic of the elements present. This energy is measured using a silicon chip detector containing a trace amount of lithium or germanium (a "LiSi"or a "GeSi". Incidentally, submitting a hair sample to this process provide an elemental fingerprint, because elements in the body influence metabolism, which in turn influences hair composition. Even identical twins have different "hair prints" if their diets are dissimilar.

Neutron activation analysis is frequently used in provenance studies. For example, in the ancient Middle East, the black mineral obsidian was a commonly used currency. Using trace element profiles of this currency and of obsidian in known mining sites, we can deduce where particular samples originated, compare this to where they ended up, and trace the trade routes along which they must have been transported. Similarly, looking at differentiation in lead isotope ratios in locations like Spain, England, and Greece via spark source mass spectrometry is also sometimes used to determine where sunken ships where sunken ships were loaded with lead ballast; and by comparing the place they sunk to the place they originated, we can learn more about maritime trade.

Another commonly used method, infrared micro spectroscopy, facilitates "de-authentication",that is, it can provide evidence that a painting that purports to be an original famous work is actually a counterfeit. This method only uses a sample size of ten microns in diameter, so it is also ideal for books and documents; it allowed Professor Orna to take samples from pages of a gospel book in the University of Chicago special collections that was believed to be from the 12th century, to analyze the pigment, and to conclude that it was "Prussian Blue." Because Prussian blue was not synthesized until the 18th century, the manuscript had to have been produced after 1700Ñand indeed, it was eventually found to be just like one in St. Petersburg that had been produced in Athens in the 20th century - a forgery.

Through these animated anecdotes, Professor Orna illustrated the way science enables us to examine evidence to determine the date and content of an artifact, to piece artifacts together, to trace their origination, and to detect forgeries. As chemistry is increasingly incorporated into studies of history, art, and social science, the humanities and the sciences are indeed becoming intertwined.